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Why We Have Seasons
Space Systems & Earth's History
Explain that the seasons are caused by the tilt of Earth's axis during its orbit around the Sun, distinguishing this from the common misconception that seasons are caused by changing distance from the Sun
Acid Reactions & Salts
Matter & Materials
Describe and write word equations for the reactions of acids with metals, alkalis (neutralisation), and metal oxides/hydroxides, identifying the salt produced in each case
Acids, Alkalis & pH
Matter & Materials
Define acids and alkalis in terms of hydrogen ion concentration, describe the pH scale (0–14), and explain how indicators are used to identify and measure acidity or alkalinity
Aerobic Respiration
Organisms & Life Processes
Explain aerobic respiration as the process by which organisms release energy from glucose using oxygen, producing carbon dioxide and water; write and interpret the word equation: glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
Anaerobic Respiration
Organisms & Life Processes
Explain anaerobic respiration in animals as the incomplete breakdown of glucose to lactic acid when oxygen is in short supply, causing muscle fatigue; contrast this with aerobic respiration in terms of energy yield and products
Biodiversity & Resilience
Ecosystems & Habitats
Explain what biodiversity means, why high biodiversity makes ecosystems more resilient, and describe the ways human activity threatens biodiversity (habitat destruction, pollution, invasive species, climate change)
Body Temperature Regulation
Organisms & Life Processes
Explain how the human body detects and responds to environmental changes including temperature, including the role of the skin in temperature regulation (sweating, shivering, vasodilation, vasoconstriction)
Chromosomes, Genes & DNA
Ecosystems & Habitats
Describe the relationship between chromosomes, genes, and DNA in heredity, including the double helix structure of DNA and the historical roles of Watson, Crick, Franklin, and Wilkins
Conduction, convection, and radiation
Energy
Describe and compare the three mechanisms of heat transfer — conduction (particle vibration through solids), convection (fluid movement in liquids/gases), and radiation (infrared waves) — and explain that the rate of transfer depends on temperature difference
Coral Bleaching & Acidification
Ocean Life
Explain the mutualistic symbiosis between coral polyps and photosynthetic zooxanthellae; describe how heat stress causes bleaching (corals expel zooxanthellae and turn white); explain ocean acidification chemistry: CO2 dissolves in seawater to form carbonic acid, lowering pH and dissolving calcium carbonate skeletons; connect reef loss to the collapse of habitat for ~25% of marine species; evaluate current reef restoration efforts
Deep-Sea Survival
Animals of the World
Explain how deep-sea animals cope with crushing pressure (no gas-filled spaces, flexible proteins, pressure-adapted enzymes); describe thermoregulation extremes — antifreeze glycoproteins in Antarctic fish, supercooling in wood frogs; introduce tardigrades and cryptobiosis (surviving desiccation, extreme temperatures, radiation, vacuum); survey other extremophiles (thermophiles at hydrothermal vents, halophiles in salt flats); consider what these organisms tell us about the limits of life
Deformation & Fluid Pressure
Forces & Motion
Explain forces associated with deforming objects (elastic and inelastic deformation), thermal expansion and contraction of materials, and how fluid pressure acts in all directions and increases with depth
DNA & Genes
The Human Body
Describe the double helix structure of DNA (base pairs, complementarity), explain how genes are sections of DNA that code for proteins, introduce the central dogma (DNA → mRNA → protein) conceptually, and discuss the ethical implications of CRISPR gene editing — including potential benefits (genetic disease treatment) and concerns (germline editing, 'designer babies')
Drawing conclusions from evidence (age 12+)
Scientific Inquiry
Identify patterns and trends in data, draw conclusions that directly address the hypothesis with quantitative reference to evidence, and evaluate the investigation by distinguishing between systematic and random errors and proposing targeted improvements
Drawing Ray Diagrams
Waves, Light & Sound
Draw ray diagrams to show reflection at a plane mirror (angle of incidence = angle of reflection) and refraction at a boundary between media; use ray diagrams to locate images and explain how lenses and mirrors work
Earth's Atmosphere & CO2
Matter & Materials
Describe the composition of Earth's atmosphere (mainly nitrogen and oxygen, with small amounts of CO₂ and other gases), explain how human activity increases CO₂, and describe the impact on global climate
Efficiency, Sankey diagrams, and work done
Energy
Calculate energy efficiency as the ratio of useful output energy to total input energy, construct and interpret Sankey diagrams, and calculate work done using work = force × distance
Electromagnets
Forces & Motion
Describe the magnetic effect of an electric current (a current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field), and investigate how the strength of an electromagnet depends on current, number of coil turns, and core material
Evidence for Evolution
Ecosystems & Habitats
Describe the main types of evidence for evolution: the fossil record (change over time), comparative anatomy (homologous structures), and the geographic distribution of related species
Extinction & Rapid Change
Ecosystems & Habitats
Explain how environmental change can outpace a species' ability to adapt through natural selection, leading to extinction, using historical and contemporary examples
Finite Resources & Recycling
Matter & Materials
Explain that many raw materials (metals, fossil fuels, minerals) are finite resources, describe the environmental costs of extraction, and evaluate the benefits of recycling and the circular economy
Galaxies and the universe
Space Systems & Earth's History
Describe the scale of the universe, including the structure of galaxies, the position of the Sun in the Milky Way, and the use of light years as a unit of distance, and appreciate why space exploration requires enormous timescales
Gas Exchange & Breathing
Organisms & Life Processes
Describe the structure of the human gas exchange system (trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli) and explain how the mechanism of breathing — using pressure changes from rib and diaphragm movement — moves air in and out of the lungs
Genetic Mutation
Ecosystems & Habitats
Explain genetic mutation as a random change in DNA sequence, describe causes of mutation (e.g. radiation, chemicals, copying errors), and explain that most mutations are neutral, some harmful, and a few beneficial